性力派(梵文：शाक्तं，Śāktaṃ;字面意義為力量之教條或女神之教條)是印度教的一個支派，專於崇拜沙克提或提毗—印度教的聖母—作為絕對的，終極的神格。該派別同濕婆派、毗濕奴派並立為印度教三大派。從濕婆派分化而來的印度教三大派之一。

崇拜性力女神難近母、時母、吉祥天女、辯才天女等。性力派主要教義為,這些女神從男神那裡得到性的力量是宇宙萬有創造和誕生的本源。經典是《坦陀羅 》(Tantra)，大約與後期《往世書》同期產生，很古老據說有64種很多已經失傳，殘存的多是7世紀的產物，大約與後期《往世書》同期產生。

性力派

性力派 (Sanskrit: Śāktaṃ, शाक्तं; lit.， “力量女神的教條”或“教條”)是a 衡量單位 印度教 那聚焦崇拜 Shakti 或 Devi -印度 神的母親 -作為絕對，最後神性。 它，與一起 Saivism, 毗瑟挐宗派主義和 Smartism印度教四所國小之一。

性力派認為Devi (lit.， “女神”)至尊 婆羅門 本身， “那個沒有一秒鐘”，與神性、女性或者男性的其他形式，認為僅僅她不同的顯示。 在它的哲學和實踐細節，性力派類似Saivism。 然而， Shaktas (Sanskrit ： Śakta, शक्त性力派的最)，實習者，焦點或所有崇拜在Shakti，作為動態女性方面的至尊占卦。 Shiva神性的男性方面，單一地被考慮 卓越和他的崇拜一般被轉移到一個輔助角色。[1]

性力派根擊穿深深入印度的史前史。 從女神的最早的已知的出現在印第安舊石器時代的解決超過22,000年前，通過她的崇拜的提煉在 Indus谷文明她的偏蝕在期間 Vedic期間和她的隨後復出和擴展在Sanskrit傳統，它被建議，在許多方式， “印度傳統的歷史能看作為再度出現女性”。[2]

在中它的歷史性力派啟發了了不起的工作 Sanskrit文學 並且 印度哲學和它繼續今天強烈影響普遍的印度教。 性力派被實踐在印第安次大陸中和外面，以不計其數的形式，兩個 Tantric 並且非Tantric; 然而，它二最大和最可看見的學校是 Srikula或者家庭 Sri最強 南印度和 Kalikula或者家庭 Kali在北和東印度戰勝。[3]

概要

Shakti和Shiva

Shaktas構想女神作為至尊神，是波斯菊和能量的來源治理並且控制它。 但“無處在世界的宗教歷史上我們遇到這樣一個完全地針對女性的系統”。 [4] 性力派的焦點在神女性不暗示男性或中性神性的拒絕; 然而，兩個被視為是不活潑的在沒有Shakti時。 在Shakta崇拜， Shiva在一個“下等或依賴角色被熔鑄作為女神的僕人或看門人”。 Shaktas宣稱Shiva是a shava (屍體)沒有女神的力量引導他。 這教條在站立在表面上死的Shiva的Kali的圖象被強調。 [5]

如開始 Adi Shankara‘s顯耀的Shakta讚美詩， Saundaryalahari (c。 800鈰)， “Shiva，當團結對Shakti時滲入並且承受宇宙，但[他]不能有活動iota，當從Shakti時離解。 這是基本和根本原則在性力派。“[6]

Shakti (至尊女神作為力量或能量)在現象波斯菊被認為刺激力量在所有行動之後和存在。 波斯菊即是婆羅門，提供是的所有神的地面不變，無限，內在和卓越的現實的概念。 男性潛在性由女性物力論成為事實，實現在最後被和解入一個的多數女神。 [7]

著名的史學家v。 R. Ramachandra Dikshitar[8] 因而表達它： “性力派是動態印度教。 性力派優秀在它的Shakti的肯定在作為知覺和Shakti和婆羅門的身分。 簡而言之，婆羅門是靜態Shakti，並且Shakti是動態婆羅門。“[9] 在宗教藝術，這宇宙動態強大用一半Shakti，一半Shiva神被表達以著名 Ardhanari.[10]

性力派觀看Devi作為來源、精華和物質實際上 一切 在創作，看或未看見，包括Shiva。 的確，在 Devi-Bhagavata Purana一個中央Shakta聖經， Devi宣稱：

“我是明顯神性、Unmanifest神性和卓越的神性。 我是 Brahma, Vishnu 並且Shiva，並且 Saraswati, Lakshmi 並且 Parvati. 我是太陽，並且我是星，並且我也是月亮。 我是所有動物和鳥，並且我是outcaste和竊賊。 我是令人恐懼的行為的低人和優秀行為的了不起的人。 我女性，我是馬累，並且我中性。“[11]

宗教學者C。 MacKenzie布朗解釋性力派“清楚地堅持，二個性別，女性在宇宙代表統治力量。 如果它真實地是最後的，在最後必須包括兩個性別。 男性和女性是神，卓越的現實的方面，在之外去，但仍然包含他們。 Devi，以她的至尊形式作為知覺因而超越性別，但她的卓絕不是除她的內在之外。“[12]

布朗的分析的確繼續， “卓絕和內在的統一性的這肯定構成神的母親[和她]最後勝利的精華。 它不是，終於，她在男性神是無限地優越-雖則她是那，根據[性力派] -，但寧可她超越她自己的女性自然 Prakriti 沒有否認它。“[13]

協會與Tantra

性力派的一個廣泛被誤會的方面是它接近的協會與 密教 -在印度南部建議一切從正統寺廟崇拜，到不可思議和的一個模稜兩可，被裝載的概念 隱密 實踐在北部印度， 被儀式化的性 在西方。[14] 實際上，正不是Tantra的所有的形式是Shaktic本質上，不是性力派的所有的形式是Tantric本質上。[15]

當規定“Tantra”關於地道印度性力派時使用，它經常提到禮節指南類和-更加寬廣地-到女神被聚焦的精神學科神秘的方法學(sadhana)介入 佛經, yantra, nyasa, mudra 並且某些元素的傳統 kundalini瑜伽在具有資格的指導下所有實踐 宗師 在交付啟蒙以後(diksha)和口頭指示補充各種各樣的書面來源。[16]

在它的社會互作用， Tantra是“從各種各樣的世襲的社會等級和家長式偏見解脫。 婦女或a shudra 在角色有資格起作用[宗師]。 所有婦女被認為顯示 Shakti並且他們是尊敬對象和熱愛。 誰觸犯他們招致了不起的女神的憤怒。 每[男性追求者]必須體會潛在女性僅原則在他自己之內和通過[因而] ‘變得女性’是他給權崇拜至尊生存"[17]

更加有爭議的元素，例如 “五女士” 或 panchamakara使用在某些情況之下由一些Tantric Shakta派別。 然而，這些元素傾向於被過分強調並且由關於地道教條和實踐是訊息不靈通的評論員sensationalized (友好和敵對)。 而且，甚而在傳統之內有寬看法差異關於適當的解釋 panchamakara和有些後裔一共拒絕他們。[18]

總之， Tantric和非Tantric元素的複雜社會和歷史相互關係在性力派-和印度教一般-是一極端憂慮的並且nuanced討論題目。[19] 然而，概括來說：

“共同描繪密教的想法和實踐瀰漫古典印度教[和]它是要考慮密教的錯誤除它的複雜相互關係之外以非Tantric傳統。 文藝歷史展示那 Vedic-安置 婆羅門 在Shakta密教介入了從發展它的起初階段，即，從至少第六個世紀。 當Shakta密教也許發起於[前Vedic，土產]時女神崇拜，所有企圖疏遠Shakta密教從Sanskritic印度傳統[...]將帶領我們迷路。“[20]

主要神

Shaktas在也許接近Devi任何形式的一個浩大的數字。 獻身者崇拜的主要Devi形式(即，他們 ishta-devi)能取決於許多因素，包括家庭傳統，地方實踐，宗師後裔，個人共鳴等等。 逐字地有數以萬計女神形式，大多數與特殊寺廟相關，地理特點甚至各自的村莊。 然而，他們全部認為，而是一個至尊女神的不同的方面。[21]

但是，幾個高度普遍的女神形式知道並且被崇拜在印度世界中，並且實際上每個女性神在印度教認為是一個或更多的顯示這些“基本的”形式。 普遍的印度教的最響譽的仁慈女神包括：[22]

Adi Parashakti: 女神作為宇宙的原始，卓越的來源。

Durga (Amba, Ambika): 女神 Mahadevi至尊神性。

Sri-Lakshmi: 女神 物質履行(財富、健康、時運、愛、秀麗、生育力等等); 一致(shakti) Vishnu

Parvati (Gauri, 趾緣蜥類): 精神履行，神的愛的女神; 一致(shakti) Shiva

Saraswati: 文化履行的女神(知識或教育、音樂、藝術和科學等等); 一致(shakti) Brahma; 辨認與 Saraswati河

Gayatri: 女神作為佛經的母親

Ganga: 女神作為神的河; 辨認與 恆河

Sita: 女神 Rama‘s一致

Radha: 女神 Krishna‘s一致

Sati: 婚姻聯繫的女神; 原始的一致(shakti) Shiva

Tantric神

主要文章： Mahavidyas, Matrikas和 Yogini

女神小組-例如“九Durgas” (Navadurga)， “八Lakshmis” (Ashta-Lakshmi)或“十五Nityas” -是非常共同的在印度教。 但沒有小組更好更好比顯露性力派的元素 十Mahavidyas (Dasamahavidya). 通過他們， Shaktas在十個不同小平面相信， “一真相感覺; 神的母親被崇拜並且接近作為十種宇宙個性。“[23] Mahavidyas被認為Tantric本質上和通常被辨認如下：[24]

Kali: 女神作為時間的宇宙破壞、死亡或者“貪食者” (至尊神 Kalikula 系統)

Tara: 女神作為指南和保護者或者誰保存

Lalita-Tripurasundari (Shodashi): 是“美麗在三個世界”的女神(至尊神 Srikula 系統); “Tantric Parvati”

Bhuvaneshvari: 女神當世界母親或者身體是波斯菊

Bhairavi: 劇烈女神

Chhinnamasta: 自已被殺頭的女神

Dhumavati: 寡婦女神

Bagalamukhi: 麻痹敵人的女神

Matangi: Outcaste女神(在 Kalikula 系統); Lalita的總理(在 Srikula 系統); “Tantric Saraswati”

Kamala: 蓮花女神; “Tantric Lakshmi”

另一個主要女神小組是 Sapta-Matrika (“七個小母親”)， “誰是不同的主要神能量和描述作為協助偉大的Shakta Devi在她的戰鬥與邪魔”。[25] 根據Bhattacharyya ：

“性力派的成長的重要性[ matrikas 並且 yoginis 在]被帶領他們進入更加偉大的突起和和寬分布他們的崇拜的第一千年鈰。 [...]原始 Yogini 崇拜由於增加也復興了被影響七個母親的崇拜。 在Sanskrit文學 Yoginis 代表了作為乘務員或各種各樣的顯示 Durga 參與戰鬥與[各種各樣的邪魔]和校長 Yoginis 辨認與 Matrikas."[26]

歷史和哲學發展

主要文章： 性力派的歷史

性力派起點在史前史薄霧被覆蓋。 在印度發掘的最早期的母親女神小雕像，屬於 上部舊石器時代是碳標日期的對大約20,000 BCE。 [27] 數以萬計女性小雕像早在c.約會了。 5500 BCE恢復了在 Mehrgarh一最重要 新石器時代 站點在世界考古學。[28] 當精確地重建及時時那么遙遠地取消的文明的宗教信仰是不可能的，它根據考古學和人類學證據廣泛被相信，偉大 Indus谷文明 大概是現代Shakta宗教的一個直接前輩。[29]

Indus谷文明慢慢地下降了並且分散了，與其他小組混合的它的人民最終提升 Vedic文明 (c。 1500年- 600 BCE)。 性力派，因為它今天存在從Vedic年齡的文學開始了; 在印度史詩的形成期間促進演變; 在期間，到達了它充分的花 Gupta年齡 (300-700鈰)和繼續爾後擴展和開發。[30]

最中央和最舉足輕重的文本在性力派是 Devi Mahatmya (亦稱 Durga Saptashati, Chandi 或 Chandi道路)，組成大約1,600年前。 這裡，第一次， “各種各樣的神話， cultic和神學元素與不同的女性神性相關在什麼被帶來了稱女神傳統的‘結晶。’”[31]

其他重要文本包括標準 Shakta Upanishads,[32] 並且針對Shakta Puranic文學 例如 Devi Purana 並且 Kalika Purana,[33] Lalita Sahasranama (從 Brahmanda Purana),[34] Devi Gita (從 Devi-Bhagavata Purana),[35] Adi Shankara‘s Saundaryalahari[36] 並且 Tantras.[37]

最近， Bhattacharyya筆記，性力派有，因此它有在“停止的某些方面是一種宗派宗教的被灌輸的主流印度教”，因為它不提出“困難為了任何人能接受它的精華”。[38] 新發展與性力派有關包括誕生 Bharat Mata (“母親印度”)象徵主義、印度女性聖徒的增長的可見性和宗師，[39] 並且“新的”女神的巨大的上升 Santoshi Mata 印第安影片的跟隨的發行 Jai Santoshi Maa (“冰雹對滿意的母親”) 1975年。[40] Johnsen注意：

“今天正10,000年前，女神的圖象到處在印度。 您在卡車的邊在商店牆壁上將發現他們被繪，被黏貼對出租汽車儀錶板， postered。 您經常將看在印度家突出地顯示的女神的顏色繪畫。 通常圖片在牆壁上垂懸高，因此您必須起重機您的脖子落後，查找往她的腳。 [...]在印度，崇拜不是‘崇拜的女神’，它是宗教， [...]非凡精神上和心理地成熟傳統。 成千上萬人每天轉動以衷心思慕對宇宙的母親。“[41]

崇拜

性力派包含實踐幾乎不盡的品種-從原始泛靈論通過哲學猜想最高位-訪問認為是Devi的自然和形式的Shakti的那尋求(神的能量或力量)。[42] 它二最大和最可看見的學校是 Srikula或者家庭 Sri最強 南印度和 Kalikula或者家庭 Kali在北和東印度戰勝。[43]

Srikula ： Sri家庭

Srikula (家庭 Sri)傳統(sampradaya)焦點在Devi崇拜以女神的形式 Lalita-Tripurasundari構想作為了不起的女神(Mahadevi). 紮根於一千年克什米爾， Srikula在南印度比第七個世紀沒有更晚成為了力量，並且今天是在國家實踐的性力派的流行形式的南印度例如 安得拉邦, Karnataka, 喀拉拉, 泰米爾語Nadu 並且泰米爾語 斯里南卡.[44] 女神Sri (或Lakshmi)的Srikula “家庭”，不同於Kalikula，性力派另一所學校，尊敬brahminical傳統(尊敬世襲的社會等級和純淨規則)的主流印度傳統並且是最強的在南印度。 [45]

Srikula的最響譽的學校是 Srividya“一Shakta密教的最顯要和神學上複雜運動。 它的中央圖象， Sri Chakra大概是總計的最著名的視覺圖像印度Tantric傳統。 或許它的文學和實踐比[那]其他Shakta學派系統。“[46]

Srividya察覺女神如“良性(saumya)和美麗(saundarya) “一個對比到女神的Kalikula的悟性如“害怕(ugra)和恐懼(ghora) “Kali或Durga。 然而，女神的每個方面-惡性或柔和-辨認與Lalita。 [47]

Sri Chakra 被崇拜當Lalita的微妙的形式，或者作為一張二維圖(臨時地有時得出作為崇拜儀式一部分; 有時永久板刻在金屬)或以三維，金字塔形形式以著名 Sri Meru. 它不是不凡的對發現a Sri Chakra 或 Sri Meru 安裝在南印第安寺廟，因為-，因為現代實習者斷言- “沒有爭執這是Devi的最高的形式，並且某些實踐可以公開完成。 但什麼您在寺廟看見不是 srichakra 崇拜您看見當它私下時完成。“[48]

Srividya paramparas 可以是更加進一步寬廣地被細分入二條小河， Kaula (a vamamarga 實踐)和 Samaya (a dakshinamarga 實踐)。 Kaula 或 Kaulachara“首先在中央印度出現作為一個連貫禮節系統”在第八個世紀，[49] 並且它的冠軍是18世紀哲學家 Bhaskararaya廣泛被認為“Shakta哲學最佳的方次數”。[50]

Samaya 或 Samayacharya 在16世紀評論員， Lakshmidhara的工作發現它的根，並且是“劇烈地嚴謹的[在它]企圖改革Tantric實踐用根據高世襲的社會等級帶來它的方式 brahmanical 準則。“[51] 許多Samaya實習者明確地，實際上，否認Shakta或Tantric; 然而，溪爭辯說，他們的崇拜技術上依然是兩個， “即使Samayins將拒絕這個名稱”。[52]

在brahamanic圈子之外， Kaula後裔依然是活和好-，雖然他們的實習者一般喜歡私下崇拜，跟上印度格言， “當公開，是Vaishnava時。 當在朋友之中，是Shaiva。 但私下，總是Shakta。“[53] Samaya-Kaula分裂在印度密教之內指示“老爭執”，[54] 並且繼續至今蒼勁地辯論的一。[55]

Kalikula ： Kali家庭

Kalikula (家庭 Kali)性力派的形式是最統治的在北和東印度，並且廣泛流行 西部孟加拉, Assam, Bihar 並且 Orissa並且部分 馬哈拉施特拉 並且 孟加拉國. Kalikula 後裔聚焦在Devi作為智慧的來源(vidya)和解放(moksha). 他們在反對一般站立“他們觀看如“過度保守和否認宗教的經驗的部分的brahmanic傳統””。[56]

有些學者陳述徹底Kalikula學校拒絕brahminical傳統。 [57] 這些看法是難和解以看法的複數在更大的印度傳統之內在Kalikula學校外面; 了不起的印度聖徒， Ramakrishna大概，其中一個最著名的崇拜者 Kali出生在傳統 婆羅門 家庭和崇拜她作為神的母親; 此外，他是kalikula學校的沒有追隨者，而是寧可追隨者 smarta advaitic 傳統，考慮 Devi 是五個相等的形式之一的神。 [58];[59]

Kalikula主要神是 Kali, Chandi 並且 Durga. 享受尊敬的其他女神是 Tara 並且所有其他 Mahavidyas 並且地方女神例如 Manasa蛇女神，和 Sitala天花女神-神的母親的所有被考慮的方面。 [60]

性力派的二個主要中心在西部孟加拉是 Kalighat 在 加爾各答 並且 Tarapith 在 Birbhum區. 在加爾各答，重點在熱愛(bhakti)對女神 Kali:

她是“保護她的孩子，並且兇猛守衛他們的愛戀的母親。 她向外嚇唬-與黑暗的皮膚、針對性的牙和頭骨項鍊-，但在內部美麗。 她可以保證好重生或偉大的宗教洞察，並且她的崇拜經常是共同的-特別是在節日，例如 Kali Puja 並且 Durga Puja. 崇拜也許介入獻身者的聯合與或愛女神，她的形式的形象化的沉思，歌頌[她] 佛經禱告在她的圖象之前或 yantra和給[]奉獻物。“[61]

在Tarapith， Devi的顯示 Tara (“她保存”)或 Ugratara (“劇烈Tara”)是上升的，作為給解放(的女神kaivalyadayini). [...]形式 sadhana 這裡執行更多 yogic 並且 tantric 比獻身和他們經常介入單獨坐在[火葬]地面，圍攏由灰和骨頭。 有 shamanic 元素聯合Tarapith傳統，包括‘女神’，驅邪、精神恍惚和控制的占領。“[62]

所有這樣儀式哲學和獻身基盤，然而，依然是Devi的瀰漫的視覺作為至尊，絕對神性。 如由十九世紀聖徒表達 Ramakrishna其中一個顯要人物在現代孟加拉性力派：

“Kali是婆羅門。 稱Brahman的那真正地是Kali。 她是最初能量。 當那能量依然是不活潑時，我稱它婆羅門和，當它創造時，蜜餞或者毀壞，我稱它Shakti或Kali。 什麼您稱婆羅門我叫Kali。 婆羅門和Kali不是不同的。 他們是象火和它的力量燒： 如果你認為火你必須認為它的力量燒。 如果你認出Kali你必須也認可婆羅門; 再次，如果你認出婆羅門你必須認可Kali。 婆羅門和它的力量是相同的。 它是對演講我作為Shakti或Kali的婆羅門。“[63]

節日

Shaktas慶祝多數主要印度節日(雖然有時以輕微地不同的重點)，並且各種各樣的地方，寺廟具體，並且/或者神具體遵守。 [64]

最重要的Shakta節日是 Navratri (“九夜節日”或者 “Sharad [秋天] Navratri ")，與第十天一起，以著名 Dusshera 或 Vijayadashami紀念以各種各樣的邪魔的Devi的勝利在 Devi Mahatmya. [65] 在 孟加拉前四天Navaratri慶祝 Durga Puja水牛邪魔指示的殺害 Mahishasura 由 Durga. [66]

其他Navaratris包括 Vasanta Navaratri (“九夜節”或 Chaitra Navatri) -慶祝在晚春期間到夏天(3月4月)在印度月 Chaitra 並且 Ashada Navaratri(“九夜夏天節日”)在印度月 Ashadha. Srividya後裔慶祝 Vasanta Navaratri 作為女神 Lalita‘s Navratri與Durga的Navratri相對在秋天。 Vaishno Devi 在這個期間，寺廟在Jammu觀察它的主要Navaratri慶祝。 [67] Ashada Navaratri 為公豬朝向的女神Varahi，之一的獻身者是特別重要的七 Matrikas Devi Mahatmya。[68]

多數Shaktas崇拜在家禮儀Lakshmi在此，跟隨Durga Puja的滿月夜這也叫 Khojagiri Lakshmi Puja.[69] 另一個節日致力Lakshmi是 Diwali (或 Deepavali; “燈節”)。 主要印度假日Diwali，北部印第安新年，在新月的夜在印度月舉行 Kartik (通常10月或11月)。 Shaktas (和許多non-Shaktas)它把另一Lakshmi Puja視為，安置小油燈在他們的家之外和祈禱為了女神能來保佑他們。 [70] Diwali與Kali相符Puja的慶祝，普遍在孟加拉，當一些Shakta傳統集中他們的崇拜於Devi作為Kali而不是Devi作為Lakshmi。 [71]

Jagaddhatri Puja 在Navaratis的前四天慶祝，跟隨Kali Puja。 它於Durga Puja是非常相似的在它的細節和遵守，並且是特別普遍的在孟加拉和東印度的其他部分。

Gauri Puja 在第五天以後執行 Ganesh Chaturthi在期間 Ganesha Puja在西印度，慶祝到來 GauriGanesha的母親，來帶來她的兒子後面家。

有不同的日期為 Saraswati Puja取決於區域和地方傳統。 共同地，在印度月的第五天 Phalguna (1月2月)，學生為Saraswati在他們的研究中提供他們的書和樂器並且為她的祝福祈禱。 在印度的有些部分， Saraswati Puja在月Magh慶祝; 在其他，在最後的三天期間 Navratri. [72]

主要Shakta寺廟節日是 Meenakshi Kalyanam 並且 Ambubachi Mela. Meenakshi Kalyanam 觀察Devi的吉利場合( Meenakshi)與Sundareshwara閣下的婚姻(Shiva)在附近被集中 Meenakshi阿曼寺廟 在 Madurai, 泰米爾語Nadu. 它跑12天，計數從陰曆月的第二天 Chaitra在4月或。[73] Ambubachi Mela 是女神的逐年月經的慶祝，舉行在6月或7月(在季風季節期間)在 Kamakhya寺廟Guwahati， Assam。 以a的形式， Devi這裡被崇拜 yoni-象一個紅色自然地被設色的彈簧流動的石頭。 [74]

寺廟

詳細信息： Shakti寺廟名單 並且 Shakti Peethas

有數以萬計 Shakti寺廟; 浩大或微小，著名或者陰暗。 而且，不計其數的城市、鎮、村莊和地理地標被命名對於各種各樣Devi。[75] “在這個浩大的國家，女神的聖潔手段是無數的，並且她的崇拜大眾化甚而在印度的地方名字被證明”。[76]

在不同時候，不同的作家試圖組織其中一些入名單“Shakti Peethas"; “Devi的逐字位子”或者更加寬廣地， “力量地方”。 編號從任何地方四到51 (在最著名的名單，在發現了 Tantra Cudamani)， “ peethas [成為了]中世紀作家的一個普遍的題材，許多誰在製造地名，女神採取了最巨大的自由和他們 bhairavas [一致]。“[77]

批評和誤用

性力派時常駁回了作為根本幾乎不合格作為一種真實的宗教的迷信，黑魔術被騷擾的實踐。 特點這樣批評是印第安學者發布的這寬邊在20年代：

“Tantras是性力派，辨認所有力量以女性原則本質上和教Shiva和Vishnu的妻子的過度的崇拜的[...]聖經對他們的男性相對物忽視。 [...]它肯定印度的居民的一個浩大的數字在他們的日常生活中被引導由Tantrik教學，並且在奴役到在這些文字反覆灌輸的總迷信。 並且它可能缺乏地的確被懷疑性力派是印度教到達了在發展它的最壞和最腐敗的階段。“[78]

這親切，白色筆記的聲明，根據一些外部觀察員無知、誤解和偏見主要地，並且某些知情人肆無忌憚的實踐。 “是在這上下文許多Hindus在印度今天否認Tantra相關性與他們的傳統，通過或禮物，辨認什麼他們叫 tantra佛經 如非常mumbo超大。“[79]

更加進一步muddying水， “很多位印第安和西部精神企業家為一位主要美國和歐洲顧客提供‘Tantric性’過去幾年。 提出Tantra的整個歷史作為成一體，整體‘崇拜銷魂’和假設在印第安文化擊響了性慾由定義Tantric的那所有，新的年齡Tantra折衷把印第安erotics，按摩技術混合在一起， Ayurveda和瑜伽到唯一被發明的傳統[...]里投了在對待‘Tantric性’作為消費品尋找者的有空平民。“[80]

亦不是它不凡遇到主張印度教Shaiva和Vaishnava學校導致 moksha或者精神解放，而性力派僅僅導致 siddhis (隱密力量)和 bhukti (物質享受) -或，最好(根據一些Shaiva口譯員)， Shaivism; 例如， Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami 闡明，在性力派，強調給予女性由哪些體現男性聯合國體現 Parasiva 最後被到達。[81] 這樣要求由嚴肅的神學家在性力派之內駁回：[82]

“每一[神的母親的] vidyas [智慧的方面，即。 形式]是a Brahma Vidya [道路向至尊智慧]。 sadhaka 任何這些中的一個[Shakta道路]最後獲得，如果他的志向是這樣，生活的至尊目的-， [為]體會女神的自我實現和神認識不是與[體會]一.的自已不同。“[83]

擴展在南亞之外

性力派實踐不再被限制對南亞。 傳統Shakta寺廟出現了 東南亞 美洲, 歐洲, 澳洲 並且在別處-一些由非印第安語熱心地出席了並且 印第安猶太人散居地 Hindus。 例子在 美國 包括 Kali Mandir 在 Laguna海灘，加利福尼亞;[84] 並且 Sri Rajarajeshwari Peetam,[85] a Srividya Shakta寺廟在農村 倉促，紐約. 倉促寺廟是，實際上，最近主題探索猶太人散居地印度教的“動力學一項深入學術研究”，包括非印地安人的嚴肅的詞條和介入在傳統印度宗教實踐。[86]

性力派也成為了一些西部精神尋找者焦點試圖修建新的女神被集中的信念。[87] 西部Kali熱心者的一項學術研究注意到， “如所有比較文化的宗教移植的歷史， Kali devotionalism所顯示在西方必須承擔它自己的土產形式，如果它是適應它新的環境”。[88] 然而，這些東西方融合可能也提出複雜和令人焦慮的問題 文化專有.

作家和思想家， “著名地 男女平等主義者 並且參加者 新的年齡 被吸引到女神崇拜"的靈性，在新的光探索了Kali。 她被考慮作為囫圇和癒合的“標誌，特別是與被抑制的女性力量和性別相關”。 這些新的解釋在Kali的印第安背景接近的讀書起源於“女權來源，幾乎無，其中基地他們的解釋”。 “從另一文化進口女神的崇拜是堅硬的： 當在當地文化埋置的深刻的象徵意義不是可利用的時，宗教協會和內涵必須是博學，想像或者由直覺知道。“ [89]

強有力的刺激在西部興趣之後在性力派上由琳達・ Johnsen，一位普遍的作家在東部靈性建議了，斷言性力派的許多中央概念-包括kundalini瑜伽的方面並且女神崇拜-曾經是“共同性對印度， 迦勒底, 希臘語 並且 羅馬 文明， “但主要丟失了到西方，並且近和中東，以上升的 Abrahamic宗教:

“這四巨大古老文明，啟示內在力量的運作的知識在一個僅質量數標度生存了在印度。 在印度僅有女神的內在傳統忍受。 這是印度教學是很珍貴的原因。 他們提供我們什麼的瞥見我們自己的古老智慧一定是。 印地安人保存了我們失去的遺產。 [...]今天它是由找出和恢復生存女神的傳統的我們決定。 我們在印度很好會做開始我們的查尋，沒有總計的一片刻人類歷史有生存女神孩子被忘記他們神的母親。“[90]Shaktism

Shaktism (Sanskrit: Śāktaṃ, शाक्तं; lit., "doctrine of power" or "doctrine of the Goddess") is a denomination of Hinduism that focuses worship upon Shakti or Devi – the Hindu Divine Mother – as the absolute, ultimate Godhead. It is, along with Saivism, Vaisnavism, and Smartism, one of the four primary schools of Hinduism.

Shaktism regards Devi (lit., "the Goddess") as the Supreme Brahman itself, the "one without a second", with all other forms of divinity, female or male, considered to be merely her diverse manifestations. In the details of its philosophy and practice, Shaktism resembles Saivism. However, Shaktas (Sanskrit: Śakta, शक्त), practitioners of Shaktism, focus most or all worship on Shakti, as the dynamic feminine aspect of the Supreme Divine. Shiva, the masculine aspect of divinity, is considered solely transcendent, and his worship is generally relegated to an auxiliary role.[1]

The roots of Shaktism penetrate deep into India's prehistory. From the Goddess's earliest known appearance in Indian paleolithic settlements more than 22,000 years ago, through the refinement of her cult in the Indus Valley Civilization, her partial eclipse during the Vedic period, and her subsequent resurfacing and expansion in Sanskrit tradition, it has been suggested that, in many ways, "the history of the Hindu tradition can be seen as a reemergence of the feminine."[2]

Over the course of its history, Shaktism has inspired great works of Sanskrit literature and Hindu philosophy, and it continues to strongly influence popular Hinduism today. Shaktism is practiced throughout the Indian subcontinent and beyond, in countless forms, both Tantric and non-Tantric; however, its two largest and most visible schools are the Srikula, or family of Sri, strongest in South India, and the Kalikula, or family of Kali, which prevails in northern and eastern India.[3]

Overview

Shakti and Shiva

Shaktas conceive the Goddess as the Supreme Deity, who is the source of the cosmos and the energy that governs and controls it. But, "nowhere in the religious history of the world do we come across such a completely female-oriented system." [4] Shaktism's focus on the Divine Feminine does not imply a rejection of Masculine or Neuter divinity; however, both are deemed to be inactive in the absence of Shakti. In Shakta worship, Shiva is cast in an "inferior or dependent role as a servant or gatekeeper of the goddess". Shaktas declare that Shiva would be a shava (corpse) without the power of the goddess to guide him. This doctrine is emphasized in the images of Kali standing on a seemingly dead Shiva. [5]

As set out in Adi Shankara's renowned Shakta hymn, Saundaryalahari (c. 800 CE), "Shiva when united to Shakti permeates and sustains the Universe, but [he] cannot have an iota of activity when dissociated from Shakti. This is the basic and fundamental tenet in Shaktism."[6]

Shakti (the Supreme Goddess as Power or Energy) is considered the motivating force behind all action and existence in the phenomenal cosmos. The cosmos itself is Brahman; i.e., the concept of an unchanging, infinite, immanent and transcendent reality that provides the divine ground of all being. Masculine potentiality is actualized by feminine dynamism, embodied in multitudinous goddesses who are ultimately reconciled into one. [7]

The noted historian V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar[8] expressed it thus: "Shaktism is dynamic Hinduism. The excellence of Shaktism lies in its affirmation of Shakti as Consciousness and of the identity of Shakti and Brahman. In short, Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman."[9] In religious art, this cosmic dynamic is powerfully expressed in the half-Shakti, half-Shiva deity known as Ardhanari.[10]

Shaktism views the Devi as the source, essence and substance of virtually everything in creation, seen or unseen, including Shiva. Indeed, in the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, a central Shakta scripture, the Devi declares:

"I am Manifest Divinity, Unmanifest Divinity, and Transcendent Divinity. I am Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, as well as Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati. I am the Sun and I am the Stars, and I am also the Moon. I am all animals and birds, and I am the outcaste as well, and the thief. I am the low person of dreadful deeds, and the great person of excellent deeds. I am Female, I am Male, and I am Neuter."[11]

The religious scholar C. MacKenzie Brown explains that Shaktism "clearly insists that, of the two genders, the feminine represents the dominant power in the universe. Yet both genders must be included in the ultimate if it is truly ultimate. The masculine and the feminine are aspects of the divine, transcendent reality, which goes beyond but still encompasses them. Devi, in her supreme form as consciousness thus transcends gender, but her transcendence is not apart from her immanence."[12]

Brown's analysis continues, "Indeed, this affirmation of the oneness of transcendence and immanence constitutes the very essence of the divine mother [and her] ultimate triumph. It is not, finally, that she is infinitely superior to the male gods – though she is that, according to [Shaktism] – but rather that she transcends her own feminine nature as Prakriti without denying it."[13]

Association with Tantra

One widely misunderstood aspect of Shaktism is its close association with Tantrism – an ambiguous, loaded concept that suggests everything from orthodox temple worship in the south of India, to black magic and occult practices in North India, to ritualized sex in the West.[14] In fact, not all forms of Shaktism are Tantric in nature, just as not all forms of Tantra are Shaktic in nature.[15]

When the term "Tantra" is used in relation to authentic Hindu Shaktism, it most often refers to a class of ritual manuals, and – more broadly – to an esoteric methodology of Goddess-focused spiritual discipline (sadhana) involving mantra, yantra, nyasa, mudra and certain elements of traditional kundalini yoga, all practiced under the guidance of a qualified guru after due initiation (diksha) and oral instruction to supplement various written sources.[16]

In its social interactions, Tantra is "free from all sorts of caste and patriarchal prejudices. A woman or a shudra is entitled to function in the role of [guru]. All women are regarded as manifestations of Shakti, and hence they are the object of respect and devotion. Whoever offends them incurs the wrath of the great goddess. Every [male aspirant] has to realize the latent Female Principle within himself, and only by [thus] 'becoming female' is he entitled to worship the Supreme Being"[17]

More controversial elements, such as the "Five Ms" or panchamakara, are employed under certain circumstances by some Tantric Shakta sects. However, these elements tend to be overemphasized and sensationalized by commentators (both friendly and hostile) who are ill-informed regarding authentic doctrine and practice. Moreover, even within the tradition itself there are wide differences of opinion regarding the proper interpretation of the panchamakara, and some lineages reject them altogether.[18]

In sum, the complex social and historical interrelations of Tantric and non-Tantric elements in Shaktism – and Hinduism in general – are an extremely fraught and nuanced topic of discussion.[19] However, as a general rule:

"Ideas and practices that collectively characterize Tantrism pervade classical Hinduism [and] it would be an error to consider Tantrism apart from its complex interrelations with non-Tantric traditions. Literary history demonstrates that Vedic-oriented brahmins have been involved in Shakta Tantrism from its incipient stages of development, that is, from at least the sixth century. While Shakta Tantrism may have originated in [pre-Vedic, indigenous] goddess cults, any attempt to distance Shakta Tantrism from the Sanskritic Hindu traditions [...] will lead us astray."[20]

Principal deities

Shaktas may approach the Devi in any of a vast number of forms. The primary Devi form worshiped by a devotee (i.e., his or her ishta-devi) can depend on many factors, including family tradition, regional practice, guru lineage, personal resonance and so on. There are literally thousands of goddess forms, many of them associated with particular temples, geographic features or even individual villages. However, they are all considered to be but diverse aspects of the One Supreme Goddess.[21]

Nonetheless, several highly popular goddess forms are known and worshiped throughout the Hindu world, and virtually every female deity in Hinduism is believed to be a manifestation of one or more of these "basic" forms. The best-known benevolent goddesses of popular Hinduism include:[22]

Adi Parashakti: The Goddess as Original, Transcendent Source of the Universe.

Durga (Amba, Ambika): The Goddess as Mahadevi, Supreme Divinity.

Sri-Lakshmi: The Goddess of Material Fulfillment (wealth, health, fortune, love, beauty, fertility, etc.); consort (shakti) of Vishnu

Parvati (Gauri, Uma): The Goddess of Spiritual Fulfillment, Divine Love; consort (shakti) of Shiva

Saraswati: The Goddess of Cultural Fulfillment (knowledge/education, music, arts and sciences, etc.); consort (shakti) of Brahma; identified with the Saraswati River

Gayatri: The Goddess as Mother of Mantras

Ganga: The Goddess as Divine River; identified with the Ganges River

Sita: The Goddess as Rama's consort

Radha: The Goddess as Krishna's consort

Sati: The Goddess of Marital Relations; original consort (shakti) of Shiva

Tantric deities

Main articles: Mahavidyas, Matrikas, and Yogini

Goddess groups – such as the "Nine Durgas" (Navadurga), "Eight Lakshmis" (Ashta-Lakshmi) or the "Fifteen Nityas" – are very common in Hinduism. But no group better reveals the elements of Shaktism better than the Ten Mahavidyas (Dasamahavidya). Through them, Shaktas believe, "the one Truth is sensed in ten different facets; the Divine Mother is adored and approached as ten cosmic personalities."[23] The Mahavidyas are considered Tantric in nature, and are usually identified as:[24]

Kali: The Goddess as Cosmic Destruction, Death or "Devourer of Time" (Supreme Deity of Kalikula systems)

Tara: The Goddess as Guide and Protector, or Who Saves

Lalita-Tripurasundari (Shodashi): The Goddess Who is "Beautiful in the Three Worlds" (Supreme Deity of Srikula systems); the "Tantric Parvati"

Bhuvaneshvari: The Goddess as World Mother, or Whose Body is the Cosmos

Bhairavi: The Fierce Goddess

Chhinnamasta: The Self-Decapitated Goddess

Dhumavati: The Widow Goddess

Bagalamukhi: The Goddess Who Paralyzes Enemies

Matangi: The Outcaste Goddess (in Kalikula systems); the Prime Minister of Lalita (in Srikula systems); the "Tantric Saraswati"

Kamala: The Lotus Goddess; the "Tantric Lakshmi"

Another major goddess group is the Sapta-Matrika ("Seven Little Mothers"), "who are the energies of different major gods, and described as assisting the great Shakta Devi in her fight with demons."[25] According to Bhattacharyya:

"The growing importance of Shaktism [of the matrikas and yoginis in the first millennium CE] brought them into greater prominence and distributed their cult far and wide. [...] The primitive Yogini cult was also revived on account of the increasing influenced of the cult of the Seven Mothers. In Sanskrit literature the Yoginis have been represented as the attendants or various manifestations of Durga engaged in fighting with [various demons], and the principal Yoginis are identified with the Matrikas."[26]

Historical and philosophical development

Main article: History of Shaktism

The beginnings of Shaktism are shrouded in the mists of prehistory. The earliest Mother Goddess figurine unearthed in India, belonging to the Upper Paleolithic, has been carbon-dated to approximately 20,000 BCE. [27] Thousands of female statuettes dated as early as c. 5500 BCE have been recovered at Mehrgarh, one of the most important Neolithic sites in world archaeology.[28] While it is impossible to precisely reconstruct the religious beliefs of a civilization so distantly removed in time, it is widely believed, based on archaeological and anthropological evidence, that the great Indus Valley Civilization is probably a direct predecessor of the modern Shakta religion.[29]

As the Indus Valley Civilization slowly declined and dispersed, its peoples mixed with other groups to eventually give rise to Vedic Civilization (c. 1500 - 600 BCE). Shaktism as it exists today began with the literature of the Vedic Age; further evolved during the formative period of the Hindu epics; reached its full flower during the Gupta Age (300-700 CE), and continued to expand and develop thereafter.[30]

The most central and pivotal text in Shaktism is the Devi Mahatmya (also known as the Durga Saptashati, Chandi or Chandi-Path), composed some 1,600 years ago. Here, for the first time, "the various mythic, cultic and theological elements relating to diverse female divinities were brought together in what has been called the 'crystallization of the Goddess tradition.'"[31]

Other important texts include the canonical Shakta Upanishads,[32] as well as Shakta-oriented Puranic literature such as the Devi Purana and Kalika Purana,[33] the Lalita Sahasranama (from the Brahmanda Purana),[34] the Devi Gita (from the Devi-Bhagavata Purana),[35] Adi Shankara's Saundaryalahari[36] and the Tantras.[37]

In recent times, Bhattacharyya notes, Shaktism has so infused mainstream Hinduism that it has in certain respects "ceased to be a sectarian religion," in that it presents "no difficulty for anyone to accept its essence."[38] Recent developments related to Shaktism include the emergence of Bharat Mata ("Mother India") symbolism, the increasing visibility of Hindu female saints and gurus,[39] and the prodigious rise of the "new" goddess Santoshi Mata following release of the Indian film Jai Santoshi Maa ("Hail to the Mother of Satisfaction") in 1975.[40] As Johnsen notes:

"Today just as 10,000 years ago, images of the Goddess are everywhere in India. You'll find them painted on the sides of trucks, pasted to the dashboards of taxis, postered on the walls of shops. You'll often see a color painting of the Goddess prominently displayed in Hindu homes. Usually the picture is hung high on the wall so you have to crane your neck backward, looking up toward her feet. [...] In India, Goddess worship is not a 'cult,' it's a religion, [...] an extraordinarily spiritually and psychologically mature tradition. Millions of people turn every day with heartfelt yearning to the Mother of the Universe."[41]

Worship

Shaktism encompasses a nearly endless variety of practices – from primitive animism through philosophical speculation of the highest order – that seek to access the Shakti (Divine Energy or Power) that is believed to be both the Devi's nature and form.[42] Its two largest and most visible schools are the Srikula, or family of Sri, strongest in South India, and the Kalikula, or family of Kali, which prevails in northern and eastern India.[43]

Srikula: Family of Sri

The Srikula (family of Sri) tradition (sampradaya) focuses worship on Devi in the form of the goddess Lalita-Tripurasundari, who conceived as the great Goddess (Mahadevi). Rooted in first-millennium Kashmir, Srikula became a force in South India no later than the seventh century, and is today the prevalent form of Shaktism practiced in states of South India such as Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Tamil Sri Lanka.[44] The Srikula "family of the Goddess Sri (or Lakshmi)," , unlike Kalikula, the other school of Shaktism, respects the brahminical tradition (a mainstream Hindu tradition which respects caste and purity rules) and is strongest in South India. [45]

The Srikula's best-known school is Srividya, "one of Shakta Tantrism's most influential and theologically sophisticated movements. Its central image, the Sri Chakra, is probably the most famous visual image in all of Hindu Tantric tradition. Its literature and practice is perhaps more systematic than [that of] any other Shakta sect."[46]

Srividya perceives the Goddess as "benign (saumya) and beautiful (saundarya)", a contrast to Kalikula's perception of the Goddess as "terrifying (ugra) and horrifying (ghora)" Kali or Durga. However, every aspect of the Goddess - malignant or gentle - is identified with Lalita. [47]

The Sri Chakra is worshiped as Lalita's subtle form, either as a two-dimensional diagram (sometimes drawn temporarily as part of the worship ritual; sometimes a permanent engraving in metal) or in the three-dimensional, pyramidal form known as the Sri Meru. It is not uncommon to find a Sri Chakra or Sri Meru installed in South Indian temples, because – as modern practitioners assert – "there is no disputing that this is the highest form of Devi and that some of the practice can be done openly. But what you see in the temples is not the srichakra worship you see when it is done privately."[48]

The Srividya paramparas can be further broadly subdivided into two streams, the Kaula (a vamamarga practice) and the Samaya (a dakshinamarga practice). The Kaula or Kaulachara, "first appeared as a coherent ritual system" in the eighth century in central India,[49] and its champion is the 18th century philosopher Bhaskararaya, who is widely considered "the best exponent of Shakta philosophy."[50]

The Samaya or Samayacharya finds its roots in the works of a 16th century commentator, Lakshmidhara, and is "fiercely puritanical [in its] attempts to reform Tantric practice in ways that bring it in line with high-caste brahmanical norms."[51] Many Samaya practitioners, in fact, explicitly deny being either Shakta or Tantric; however, Brooks argues that their cult remains technically both, "even if Samayins would reject this appellation."[52]

Outside brahamanic circles, Kaula lineages remain alive and well – though their practitioners generally prefer to worship in private, in keeping with the Hindu adage, "When in public, be a Vaishnava. When among friends, be a Shaiva. But in private, always be a Shakta."[53] The Samaya-Kaula division marks "an old dispute within Hindu Tantrism,"[54] and one that continues to be vigorously debated to this day.[55]

Kalikula: Family of Kali

The Kalikula (family of Kali) form of Shaktism is most dominant in northern and eastern India, and is most widely prevalent in West Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Orissa, as well as parts of Maharashtra and Bangladesh. Kalikula lineages focus upon the Devi as the source of wisdom (vidya) and liberation (moksha). They generally stand "in opposition to the brahmanic tradition," which they view as "overly conservative and denying the experiential part of religion."[56]

Some scholars state outright that the Kalikula school rejects brahminical tradition. [57] These views are difficult to reconcile with the plurality of views within the larger Hindu tradition outside of the Kalikula school; the great Hindu saint, Ramakrishna, probably, one of the most famous worshippers of Kali, was born in a traditional brahmin family, and worshipped Her as the Divine Mother; furthermore, he was not a follower of the kalikula school, but rather an adherent of the smarta advaitic tradition, which considers Devi to be one of the five equal forms of the Divine. [58];[59]

The main deities of Kalikula are Kali, Chandi and Durga. Other goddesses that enjoy veneration are Tara and the all other Mahavidyas as well as regional goddesses such as Manasa, the snake goddess, and Sitala, the smallpox goddess - all considered aspects of the Divine Mother. [60]

Two major centers of Shaktism in West Bengal are Kalighat in Calcutta and Tarapith in Birbhum district. In Calcutta, emphasis is on devotion (bhakti) to the goddess as Kali:

She is "the loving mother who protects her children and whose fierceness guards them. She is outwardly frightening – with dark skin, pointed teeth, and a necklace of skulls – but inwardly beautiful. She can guarantee a good rebirth or great religious insight, and her worship is often communal – especially at festivals, such as Kali Puja and Durga Puja. Worship may involve contemplation of the devotee's union with or love of the goddess, visualization of her form, chanting [of her] mantras, prayer before her image or yantra, and giving [of] offerings."[61]

At Tarapith, Devi's manifestation as Tara ("She Who Saves") or Ugratara ("Fierce Tara") is ascendant, as the goddess who gives liberation (kaivalyadayini). [...] The forms of sadhana performed here are more yogic and tantric than devotional, and they often involve sitting alone at the [cremation] ground, surrounded by ash and bone. There are shamanic elements associated with the Tarapith tradition, including 'conquest of the goddess', exorcism, trance, and control of spirits."[62]

The philosophical and devotional underpinning of all such ritual, however, remains a pervasive vision of the Devi as supreme, absolute divinity. As expressed by the nineteenth-century saint Ramakrishna, one of the most influential figures in modern Bengali Shaktism:

"Kali is none other than Brahman. That which is called Brahman is really Kali. She is the Primal Energy. When that Energy remains inactive, I call It Brahman, and when It creates, preserves, or destroys, I call It Shakti or Kali. What you call Brahman I call Kali. Brahman and Kali are not different. They are like fire and its power to burn: if one thinks of fire one must think of its power to burn. If one recognizes Kali one must also recognize Brahman; again, if one recognizes Brahman one must recognize Kali. Brahman and Its Power are identical. It is Brahman whom I address as Shakti or Kali."[63]

Festivals

Shaktas celebrate most major Hindu festivals (albeit sometimes with a slightly different emphasis), as well as a wide variety of local, temple-specific, and/or deity-specific observances. [64]

The most important Shakta festival is Navratri (The "Festival of Nine Nights", or "Sharad [Autumn] Navratri"), which together with the tenth day, known as Dusshera or Vijayadashami, commemorates the Devi's victory over various demons in the Devi Mahatmya. [65] In Bengal, the last four days of Navaratri are celebrated as Durga Puja, marking slaying of buffalo-demon Mahishasura by Durga. [66]

Other Navaratris include Vasanta Navaratri ("The Spring Festival of Nine Nights" or Chaitra Navatri) - celebrated during late spring to summer (March-April) in the Hindu month of Chaitra and Ashada Navaratri("The Summer Festival of Nine Nights") in the Hindu month Ashadha. Srividya lineages celebrate Vasanta Navaratri as goddess Lalita's Navratri as opposed to Durga's Navratri in the autumn. The Vaishno Devi temple in Jammu observes its major Navaratri celebration during this period. [67] Ashada Navaratri is particularly important for devotees of the boar-headed goddess Varahi, one of the seven Matrikas of the Devi Mahatmya.[68]

Most Shaktas worship Lakshmi ceremonially at home on this, the full moon night following Durga Puja this is also called as Khojagiri Lakshmi Puja.[69] Another festival dedicated to Lakshmi is Diwali (or Deepavali; the "Festival of Lights"). The major Hindu holiday of Diwali, the North Indian New Year, is held on the night of the new moon in the Hindu month of Kartik (usually October or November). Shaktas (and many non-Shaktas) consider it as another Lakshmi Puja, placing small oil lamps outside their homes and praying for the goddess to come and bless them. [70] Diwali coincides with the celebration of Kali Puja, popular in Bengal, with some Shakta traditions focusing their worship on Devi as Kali rather than Devi as Lakshmi. [71]

Jagaddhatri Puja is celebrated on the last four days of the Navaratis, following Kali Puja. It is very similar to Durga Puja in its details and observance, and is especially popular in Bengal and some other parts of Eastern India.

Gauri Puja is performed on the fifth day after Ganesh Chaturthi, during Ganesha Puja in Western India, to celebrate the arrival of Gauri, Mother of Ganesha, to come and bring her son back home.

There are variant dates for Saraswati Puja, depending upon region and local tradition. Commonly, on the fifth day of the Hindu month of Phalguna (January-February), students offer their books and musical instruments to Saraswati and pray for her blessings in their studies. In some parts of India, Saraswati Puja is celebrated in the month of Magh; in others, during the final three days of Navratri. [72]

Major Shakta temple festivals are Meenakshi Kalyanam and Ambubachi Mela. Meenakshi Kalyanam observes the auspicious occasion of Devi's (as Meenakshi) marriage to Lord Sundareshwara (Shiva) is centered around the Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai, Tamil Nadu. It runs for 12 days, counting from the second day of the lunar month of Chaitra, in April or May.[73] Ambubachi Mela is a celebration of the yearly menstruation of the goddess, held in June/July (during the monsoon season) at Kamakhya Temple, Guwahati, Assam. Here the Devi is worshiped in the form of a yoni-like stone over which a naturally red-tinted spring flows. [74]

Temples

Further information: List of Shakti Temples and Shakti Peethas

There are thousands of Shakti temples; vast or tiny, famous or obscure. Moreover, countless cities, towns, villages and geographic landmarks are named for various forms of the Devi.[75] "In this vast country, holy resorts of the goddess are innumerable and the popularity of her cult is proved even in the place-names of India."[76]

At various times, different writers have attempted to organize some of these into lists of "Shakti Peethas"; literally "Seats of the Devi", or more broadly, "Places of Power". Numbering anywhere from four to 51 (in the most famous list, found in the Tantra Cudamani), "the peethas [became] a popular theme of the medieval writers, many of whom took the greatest liberty in fabricating the place names, the goddesses and their bhairavas [consorts]."[77]

Criticism and misuse

Shaktism has at times been dismissed as a superstitious, black magic-infested practice that hardly qualifies as a true religion at all. Typical of such criticism is this broadside issued by an Indian scholar in the 1920s:

"The Tantras are the bible of Shaktism, [...] identifying all Force with the female principle in nature and teaching an undue adoration of the wives of Shiva and Vishnu to the neglect of their male counterparts. [...] It is certain that a vast number of the inhabitants of India are guided in their daily life by Tantrik teaching, and are in bondage to the gross superstitions inculcated in these writings. And indeed it can scarcely be doubted that Shaktism is Hinduism arrived at its worst and most corrupt stage of development."[78]

Statements of this kind, White notes, are based principally on the ignorance, misunderstanding and prejudice of some outside observers, as well as the unscrupulous practices of certain insiders. "It is in this context that many Hindus in India today deny the relevance of Tantra to their tradition, past or present, identifying what they call tantra-mantra as so much mumbo-jumbo."[79]

Further muddying the waters, "a number of Indian and Western spiritual entrepreneurs have been offering 'Tantric Sex' to a mainly American and European clientele for the past several decades. Presenting the entire history of Tantra as a unified, monolithic 'cult of ecstasy' and assuming that all that has smacked of eroticism in Indian culture is by definition Tantric, New Age Tantra eclectically blends together Indian erotics, techniques of massage, Ayurveda, and yoga into a single invented tradition [...] pitched at a leisured populace of seekers who treat 'Tantric sex' as a consumer product."[80]

Nor is it uncommon to encounter assertions that the Shaiva and Vaishnava schools of Hinduism lead to moksha, or spiritual liberation, whereas Shaktism leads merely to siddhis (occult powers) and bhukti (material enjoyments) – or, at best (according to some Shaiva interpreters), to Shaivism; for example, Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami has stated that in Shaktism, emphasis is given to the feminine manifest by which the masculine Un-manifest Parasiva is ultimately reached.[81] Such claims are dismissed by serious theologians within Shaktism:[82]

"Each of the [Divine Mother's] vidyas [aspects of wisdom, i.e. forms] is a Brahma Vidya [path to Supreme Wisdom]. The sadhaka of any one of these [Shakta paths] attains ultimately, if his aspiration is such, the supreme purpose of life – self-realisation and God-realisation, [for] realising the Goddess is not different from [realising] one's self."[83]

Expansion beyond South Asia

The practice of Shaktism is no longer confined to South Asia. Traditional Shakta temples have sprung up across Southeast Asia, the Americas, Europe, Australia and elsewhere – some enthusiastically attended by non-Indian as well as Indian diaspora Hindus. Examples in the United States include the Kali Mandir in Laguna Beach, California;[84] and Sri Rajarajeshwari Peetam,[85] a Srividya Shakta temple in rural Rush, New York. The Rush temple was, in fact, recently the subject an in-depth academic study exploring the "dynamics of diaspora Hinduism," including the serious entry and involvement of non-Indians in traditional Hindu religious practice.[86]

Shaktism has also become a focus of some Western spiritual seekers attempting to construct new Goddess-centered faiths.[87] An academic study of Western Kali enthusiasts noted that, "as shown in the histories of all cross-cultural religious transplants, Kali devotionalism in the West must take on its own indigenous forms if it is to adapt to its new environment."[88] However, these East-West fusions can also raise complex and troubling issues of cultural appropriation.

Writers and thinkers, "notably feminists and participants in New Age spirituality who are attracted to goddess worship", have explored Kali in new light. She is considered as a "symbol of wholeness and healing, associated especially with repressed female power and sexuality." These new interpretations have originated from "feminist sources,almost none of which base their interpretations on a close reading of Kali's Indian background". "It is hard to import the worship of a goddess from another culture: religious associations and connotations have to be learned, imagined or intuited when the deep symbolic meanings embedded in the native culture are not available." [89]

A powerful motivation behind Western interest in Shaktism has been suggested by Linda Johnsen, a popular writer on Eastern spirituality, who asserts that many central concepts of Shaktism – including aspects of kundalini yoga as well as goddess worship – were once "common to the Hindu, Chaldean, Greek and Roman civilizations," but were largely lost to the West, as well as the Near and Middle East, with the rise of the Abrahamic religions:

"Of these four great ancient civilizations, working knowledge of the inner forces of enlightenment has survived on a mass scale only in India. Only in India has the inner tradition of the Goddess endured. This is the reason the teachings of India are so precious. They offer us a glimpse of what our own ancient wisdom must have been. The Indians have preserved our lost heritage. [...] Today it is up to us to locate and restore the tradition of the living Goddess. We would do well to begin our search in India, where for not one moment in all of human history have the children of the living Goddess forgotten their Divine Mother."[90]